In my years as a beekeeper, I’ve attended quite a few conferences. But there’s one that has always managed to stand out in a special way. It was back in 2009 that I attended my first EAS conference in pursuit of becoming an EAS certified master beekeeper, and I’ve been going back for more ever since. I’ve often found myself pondering what exactly makes EAS such a draw for me and other beekeepers. This year, over 500 beekeepers attended the conference. Why is it that so many of us are drawn to the EAS conferences year after year?

This year, I flew out to the university of Massachusetts in Amherst to attend the 68th EAS conference. Eastern Apicultural Society of North America, Inc. (EAS) stands as a beacon of education and research. Established in 1955, EAS has grown into the largest, noncommercial beekeeping organization in the United States and a global hub for beekeeping enthusiasts. With a commitment to excellence in bee research and the education of beekeepers, EAS continues to hold an annual conference that serves as a cornerstone event for beekeepers from around the world.

This year’s theme was, “The Past, Present and Beeyond.” It was remarkable how the campus architect reflected this same “journey through time” theme with its brutalist and dystopian architectural design in many buildings.

Field Test

Master Beekeeper Certification: Nurturing Expertise
What originally drew me to attend my first EAS conference was my desire to become an EAS certified master beekeeper. In addition to education and research, EAS is renowned for its master beekeeper certification program. The EAS Master Beekeeper Program stands as a testament to EAS’s commitment to excellence and is the grandfather of all master beekeeper programs. The MB program was started by Dr. Roger Morse at Cornell in 1981 and now EAS oversees the testing of all EAS master beekeeper candidates. It is a rigorous two days of testing. Candidates must attain a minimum score of 85 to pass the lab, written, oral and field tests. Once certified, EAS MBs become pillars of support for the educational arm of EAS, contributing to the growth and enrichment of the beekeeping community.

What’s the draw for beekeepers? For me, it’s more than the informative lectures and workshops. It’s the unique opportunities for beekeepers to dive deeper into demonstrations, hands-on experiences and evening social events with friends. In fact, at my first EAS in New York, I was in a microscopy workshop examining Nosema spores and met for the first time, Dr. Jon Zawislak. We’ve become lifelong friends, having met at EAS. I’ve also made so many other lifelong friends from EAS. Every year I attend, I make more friends and connections with beekeepers around the country, even around the world.

Paul Kelly Drone Spitting

Another reason I keep going back is because once you become an EAS MB, they put you to work teaching. The Short Course, Monday through Tuesday, is a key component of the conference designed for beginners and intermediate beekeepers. This year, I spoke several times during the short course, as MBs are asked to conduct these workshops. Here, beekeepers can explore topics ranging from fundamental beekeeping techniques to specialized skills like queen grafting, disease detection and more.

The Main Conference, extending from Wednesday to Friday, features keynote presentations that set the tone for each day’s proceedings. This year’s keynote speakers were Dr. Tammy Horn-Potter, Dr. Samuel Ramsey and Dr. Judy-Wu Smart. Multiple tracks of presentations ensure that attendees can delve into their areas of interest, whether that’s the latest in honey bee research, innovative beekeeping practices, or the art of apitherapy, candle making and more.

Paul Kelly and Ken Warchol discussing pans for the smoker contest (one of the five contests in the Beekeeper Olympics)

Cultivating Creativity: Beyond the Hive
The EAS conference goes beyond the confines of traditional beekeeping to explore the creative and diverse aspects of the craft. Workshops on honey show judging, honey bee photography and cooking with honey celebrate the artistry and flavors of beekeeping.

A unique and whimsical highlight of the conference is the Bee Olympics, where beekeepers showcase their skills in unconventional contests. One standout challenge involves spitting a drone from one’s mouth to measure how far it can travel – a playful yet engaging way to test participants’ bee-related talents. So, start practicing now for 2024! By the way, you can’t kill a drone during the contest.

A Revered Guest: Rev. Lorenzo Langstroth
At an evening barbeque event, there was a special appearance by Rev. Lorenzo Langstroth as played by Marc Hoffman, adding a special historical touch. Reverend Langstroth, often hailed as the “Father of American Beekeeping,” revolutionized beekeeping with his invention of the movable frame hive. His presence serves as a reminder of the rich legacy and innovation that continues to shape modern beekeeping practices.

Frame Building Olympics

Scholarship and Success: Celebrating Achievement
EAS’s dedication to cultivating talent extends beyond certification of MBs to awards and scholarships. Yearly awards include the James I. Hambleton Memorial Award, the Roger A. Morse Outstanding Teaching Award, the Divelbliss Award, the EAS Student Apiculture Award and the Mann Lake EAS Master Beekeeper Scholarship Award. EAS desires to celebrate achievements by supporting those who are sure to enhance beekeeping in the future.

I had an opportunity to have lunch with the 2023 recipient of the Mann Lake EAS Master Beekeeper Scholarship award, Kyle Day from Missouri. For such a young man, Kyle has it all together in beekeeping. Kyle’s participation in workshops, events, and networking opportunities at the conference embodies the true spirit of EAS.

Drone Spitting

Additionally, the recognition of Ayeah Gideon Gobti from Cameroon, the international winner of the 2017 scholarship, highlights the global reach and impact of EAS’s initiatives. Gobti was unable to travel to the U.S. until this year and his attendance showcases the enduring influence of EAS’s support, fostering connections and growth that transcends borders.

A Beacon for Beekeeping: EAS’s Lasting Impact
As the annual conference at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst came to a close, the legacy of the Eastern Apicultural Society continues to reverberate. The event not only celebrates the intricate world of bees but also champions the spirit of learning, collaboration and community.

With its unwavering dedication to education, research and excellence, EAS stands as a beacon, illuminating the path forward for beekeepers, researchers and enthusiasts alike. As beekeeping evolves, EAS remains at the forefront, nurturing the passion and knowledge that sustain both the bees and those who care for them.

Cookie Ingredients
□ 2½ cups + 4 tablespoons all-purpose flour
□ ⅔ cup corn starch
□ 1 teaspoon salt
□ ½ cup + 2 tablespoons brown sugar
□ 2 teaspoon cinnamon
□ 1 cup cold butter (cut into small pieces)
□ 2 large eggs
□ 4 tablespoons honey
□ 2 tablespoons milk

Cookie Directions
Step 1
In a large bowl combine flour, corn starch, baking powder, salt, brown sugar and cinnamon. Mix well.

Step 2
Add the pieces of butter and combine until mixed into course combs.

Step 3
Add honey, eggs and milk. Mix with spoon until you can knead with your hands.

Step 4
Once you can form a smooth ball of dough, wrap in plastic wrap. Refrigerate 3 hours.

Step 5
Pre-heat over to 350°F. Line cookie sheets with parchment paper.

Step 6
On a floured, flat surface, roll dough into ¼-inch thickness and but cookies out with cookie cutter(s). I made on in the shape of a bee frame!

Step 7
Place on cookie sheets and back for 10 minutes.

Step 8
Let cool completely then frost.

Icing Ingredients
□ 3 to 3½ cups powdered sugar depending on whether or not you add food coloring
□ 2 teaspoon vanilla
□ 4 tablespoons melted butter
□ 1 teaspoon honey
□ 3 to 5 tablespoons milk
□ Optional: for the color of honey use 9 drops yellow food coloring, 1 drop red food coloring and 1 drop blue food coloring

Icing Directions
Step 1
Combine powdered sugar, vanilla, butter, honey and milk until smooth.

Step 2
Then add food coloring. Gel food coloring works best.

Step 3
Ice cookies then immediately lay out on wax paper or parchment paper to let icing set.

Step 4
Layer cookies between parchment paper in air tight container for storage.

Step 5
Keep refrigerated and enjoy!

Feeling nostalgic for the days when the word “vaccination” was ubiquitous in casual conversation, we decided to explore honey bee vaccinations by interviewing Annette Kleiser, Ph.D., CEO for the biotech company Dalan Animal Health, which has been granted a conditional license by the USDA for their honey bee vaccine.

If you thought creating a vaccination for a regular body was complicated, try making one for a superorganism! In the case of the vaccine Dalan is developing, every mated adult queen would need to be vaccinated. And right now, they are just working on American Foulbrood (AFB), which, while an outbreak can devastate, remains a less-common concern than other diseases like European Foulbrood (EFB), deformed wing virus, chalkbrood and others. How many beekeepers would think it worth preventively vaccinating against this awful but less common disease, especially if they requeen – and would therefore need to revaccinate – yearly?

Figure 1. The field diagnostic test for AFB is to measure the ropiness of the diseased brood. Photo credit: Heather Chapman

We reached out to Annette to find out more. And she assured us that they were truly in the proof-of-concept phase, with the primary goal of garnering support and interest in the beekeeping world. But we had to wonder, why start with a disease so virulent that challenging bees with it to see if the vaccine worked would be… problematic?

Beekeepers are used to industry pressing technology on them, and most of us have developed a somewhat skeptical stance towards the myriad of supplements, gadgets, and flow hives that are foisted upon us, so we brought that attitude to Annette right away. What was her investment in the beekeeping industry?

First of all, we thought Annette was very cool. She is a biologist by training, then moved to helping researchers to develop products and take their work beyond publications. Annette had done her homework and shared a sentiment that spoke to us: “Honey bees… play a vital role in our food security, mitigating climate concerns and supporting biodiversity. ⅓ of our foods depend on pollination, and honey and other products are critical in our food and pharma industries. Despite this fact, beekeeping has been overlooked too long by traditional animal health to provide modern tools for disease prevention and management. Dalan’s goal is to change this.”

We were on board with their goal of finding solutions to bee diseases that don’t rely on antibiotics or equipment-fed bonfires. As you’ll see in the Q&A, Dalan, like beekeepers, doesn’t believe in silver bullets and instead sees their vaccine as a tool in the larger toolkit of good management, good hygiene, good genetics and good nutrition. After we share her answers to our nosy questions, we will end with some further thoughts and questions that were left pondering…

Q: Talk about honey bee immune response and how it relates to the vaccine.
A: Transgenerational immune priming (TGIP) is a natural process whereby maternal insects protect the next generation of offspring from diseases. Nurse bees will encounter a pathogen in the hive, by let’s say cleaning out larvae that have come down with AFB. The nurse bee will take up some of the bacteria that cause the disease, and some bacteria may end up in the royal jelly that is fed to the queen. When that happens, pieces of the dead bug will end up in the ovaries and stimulate an immune response in the developing larvae making them more resistant to infection once they hatch. Our vaccine builds on this natural process. During the vaccination process, we expose the nurse bees and the queen in a very controlled way to a high dose of dead bacteria to ensure that the correct amount is transported to the eggs.

Q: Currently beekeepers are warned about potential AFB transmission from used equipment or feeding their bees honey from unknown sources. Do you see this vaccine as a game changer for the need of those practices?
A: AFB is so problematic because spores can live in the environment for decades, but other bacteria and diseases can be contracted from the use of honey and other sources. I think caution and good hygienic practices should always be part of the routine to keep colonies safe. However, we see this vaccine as a critical part of an integrated control program for sustainable beekeeping that for too long has relied solely on antibiotics to fend off bacterial diseases.

Q: Hygienic behavior has been helpful to remove AFB infected brood from the colony nest prior to it becoming infectious. Has anybody investigated or discussed the potential efficacy of the vaccine and hygienic behavior in protecting bees from AFB?
A: Honey bees are often called a superorganism where the colony has mechanisms for dealing with diseases and infection on an individual level, and on a colony level. Individually bees neutralize disease-causing agents, through a variety of mechanisms like the cutis, grooming, saliva, antimicrobial peptides and other components of the bee immune system. On the colony level, the disease is eliminated though hygienic behavior, removing sick larvae, food sterilization, propolis, but also increasing the colony temperature and creating a fever or sharing antimicrobial peptides with each other. Our vaccine has to be seen in this context. Vaccination is supercharging TGIP and will be supported by all other superorganism mechanisms of disease prevention. Dalan is currently conducting a multi-year, large scale pilot field trial to study the effect of vaccination in the field, where all is coming together.

Q: Does the current research support the possibility that one vaccine might be able to protect bees from multiple pathogens?
A: Our researchers started looking into this for bacterial brood diseases. We have encouraging early results but that is as much as I can say at this time.

Q: The idea of a bee vaccine is exciting, but beekeepers know to be suspect of things that look like silver bullets. What warnings do you have about the capacities and efficacy of this vaccine?
A: I don’t think there is such a thing as a silver bullet. We still need to provide skilled care for these precious animals. Our vaccine was tested and licensed for one disease. It is the first step towards a new era of disease prevention in honey bees. One day we want these tools to become part of the routine measures to protect honey bees, just like taking our pets to the vet to make sure they are protected and kept safe and ensure that they don’t spread diseases to others.

Q: Are there common misconceptions you would like to address?
A: One of the most common misconceptions is around efficacy. When we develop animal vaccines, and in particular, when working with highly contagious diseases, we had to conduct lab efficacy tests rather than infecting animals in the field. That requires establishing laboratory models that use an extremely high infection pressure forcing a high number of animals to die. This is important to arrive at a statistically significant efficacy result. We infect larvae with 5,000-10,000 spores, while typically less than 200 spores are sufficient to kill larvae in a hive. However, we achieved up to 50% survival in these extreme situations in the lab. If you now think of the field situation where you have a much lower infection pressure in the early stages, plus you add in the superorganism ability for disease mitigation, the assumption is that efficacy of the vaccine to protect from disease will be a lot higher.

Q: The Dalan pipeline has AFB, EFB and chalkbrood. Are the viruses transmitted by V. destructor on your radar?
A: Yes, viruses are very important and tools to protect from them need to be a key part of mite management. Viral vaccines are more difficult to manufacture but now that we know how to develop bee vaccines in general, we are ready to tackle viruses as well.

Q: What else do you want to share with us?
A: We realize that our product is just the start. We must be mindful that modern agriculture must also act responsibly in the use of insecticides and herbicides, and that we are at a tipping point. Our product has to be a part of a concerted/integrated effort to provide bees the best possible environment for them to do their job. This may require not only voluntary reductions in some of the damaging chemical practices, but also potential legislation.

Becky Masterman led the UMN Bee Squad from 2013-2019. Bridget Mendel joined the Bee Squad in 2013 and has led the program since 2020. Photos of Becky (left) and Bridget (right) looking for their respective hives. If you would like to contact the authors with your bee vaccine thoughts, please send an email to mindingyourbeesandcues@gmail.com.

Concluding thoughts:
We felt that Dalan’s desire to gather feedback from experts – beekeepers – was sincere: because vaccinating individual bees seems time consuming, the product would need to be excellent enough to actually save the beekeeper money and labor towards honey bee disease management.

While efficient and effective vaccination still seems a long way off after this interview, we like the mindset that we need to prevent disease as much for our bees as for our neighbor’s bees. If varroa and their virus complex has taught us anything, it is the imperative for this community-minded approach. We like Dalan Animal Health’s investment in the vaccine technology, though beekeeper investment is also needed to move this solution forward. Meanwhile, we can dream of a double disease vaccination that protects against the less common AFB and currently too common and menacing EFB. We would give it a shot!

Resources
Dalan Animal Health https://www.dalan.com/
About American and European Foulbrood https://bee-health.extension.org/american-and-european-foulbrood/

Photo 1

Photo 2

June 26, 2023 was a quiet cool day in Kyiv, Ukraine. No Air Raid sirens woke us in the middle of the night. Just two nights before, missile debris had struck a building killing four people in the Solom’yanskyi District. The very district we used to live in and would have to travel through for our first ever visit to the Ukraine National Beekeeping Museum (Photo 1). My wife’s (Natasha) maiden name is Prokopovych on her Ukrainian side. Petro Prokopovych (1775-1850) is widely recognized as the first ever designer of commercial beehives with his movable frame hive (see Photo 2). Natasha was excited even though the Soviets had destroyed most birth records and she has no idea if she is a direct relation of this famous Ukrainian beekeeper. I was excited because I had wanted to visit ever since we moved to Ukraine in November 2020 and then the war stopped all essence of normal living. We have merely learned to live with the war and today’s outing was highly anticipated. Plus, we would be meeting our friends who are considering their own apiary in the south of Kyiv Oblast.

Photo A

Our Uber driver professionally wove through traffic and soon enough we arrived at the gates. A worn sign identified the grounds of the museum as the “Prokopovych Institute of Beekeeping” (Photo A). Our friends were running behind and as we entered the gate, the guard informed us the museum was closed. My wife rattled off her fluent Russian and soon enough, a phone call was made, the gates opened. Once you step inside the gates, the urban environment completely disappears. We first encountered a single apitherapy house along with wood-carved gnomes the size of small logs. Meandering down the lane, an older woman was pulling weeds near the statue of Petro Prokopovych. Natasha spoke with her briefly and we continued on. Soon, we came upon all different styles of beehives from the old log hives to Ukrainian-style long hives to some Slovenian and others. All this on display in the outdoors. More whimsical log gnomes greeted us along the way (Photo 3).

Photo 3

Soon enough, we encountered a man who greeted us and asked us our business. We informed him we wanted to see the museum. He had to check higher up the ladder and told us to wander a bit while he did so. Further down the lane, we came across an Orthodox Christian chapel with various saints who were known as beekeepers. The inside was closed but the exterior was well adorned. We continued on, our friends informed us they were running late and stuck in Kyiv traffic. At the end of the lane, we came across several active Langstroth hives in a small beeyard. I could tell that two of the hives were strong but a third was weak based on the activity in and out of the hives. Soon enough, our guide was inquiring if our friends were coming and he was beginning to look impatient. A few moments later, we saw them making their way down the lane.

Our guide never gave us his name or maybe I missed it when he did. Once we were all together, he became very enthusiastic. Since my wife is a Russian speaker, he chose that language instead of Ukrainian. Our friends are also fluent in both languages and I get by a little in both. The first room we enter holds old farming instruments from the 1800’s along with a loom to show the tradition of Cossack self-sufficiency. Petro Prokopovych came from a family of priests of Cossack origin. Various implements for shearing sheep and combing the wool lie around, an old horn instrument and several garments with the signature embroidery style of Ukraine.

Next, we enter a full room of preserved hives and other beekeeping instruments. Here, there is a perfectly preserved Prokopovych Hive (See Photo 2). There are old Slavic log hives on one side of the room. Ukrainian-style long hives in various forms, some painted with elaborate Cossack scenes and other hives from Poland, the Baltics and Slovakia line the walls. Our guide shows us queen nucs with wax still in the frames. Also, a very interesting box that I thought was a nuc box turned out to be an apitherapy box that a healer carried with them when using bee stings. A large painting of monks tending beehives adorns one wall of the whole room as well. We probably could have stayed there another hour but being the museum wasn’t “officially” open, we didn’t want to press our luck.

Our guide politely showed us into the next room where there sat a model of “The Swallow’s Nest” which is a famous castle on the coast of Crimea, now occupied by the Russians. The most amazing thing is that our guide opened it to reveal that it was once a decorative, functioning beehive with customized movable frames.

Just off that room, stood one of the great treasures of the whole museum. A room full of products made from beekeeping. There were two whole cabinets of apothecary items from a century ago to modern times. An apitherapy inhaler sat lonely next to them. A full cabinet of various beekeeping tools from wax scrapers, framing implements, hive tools and other sundry items known to most beekeepers stood to the left. Three cabinets with various items made from beeswax from the practical to the artistic kept us all mesmerized for quite a while. There was even a copy of Da Vinci’s “Last Supper” cast entirely of beeswax. My friend Kostya and I were intrigued most by the last cabinet. It contained a complete collection of various alcoholic spirits made from not only honey but propolis and a bottle of sake said to be made from the remains of dead bees. We didn’t want to leave this room and there was hardly enough time to examine every single item.

Photo 4

Our guide got very excited as he led us into the last room. The electricity flickered on and off as it often does in the war. He was downcast and we all stood there for a minute discussing some of the displays we had seen. A whir in the background and the lights came on and our guide smiled as he lit a full diorama of the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra (Photo 4). This monastery is the most famous in Kyiv because it is the foundation of Orthodox Christianity in most of the Northern Slavic lands founded in 1051. In 2013, the International Beekeeping Congress (Apimondia) was held in Kyiv and a tour of the monastery’s apiary was part of the program. Orthodox monks produce honey, beeswax candles and other products to this day. Now, during the war, the Kyiv Pechersk Lavra is another battleground for Moscow’s control of Ukraine. Yet, the monastic beekeepers, we assume, still look after the apiary.

Just as we were about to wrap up our tour, another man entered and introduced himself as a Director of the Museum, Genadiy Bodnarchuk. He explained the entire complex and museum were found by his father, L.I. Bodnarchuk (1938-2015) and the museum itself is now named the L.I. Bodnarchuk Beekeeping Museum. We had a good laugh when he told us he is allergic to bees (a trait we share in common). Our friend who wanted to start an apiary had some questions and Gendaiy gladly spoke to them about the two different types of Apis mellifera used for beekeeping in Ukraine. There is what he called the “Steppe Bees” which are more adapted to warmer climates and live in the south of the country. Unfortunately, this is where most of the active war zone is and many beekeepers have lost their apiaries through death, destruction and theft by the invading army. The other type of honey bee used he called “Carpathian Bees” which he got very excited about. Apparently, these are very disease/pest resistant, gentle and he became animated as he explained that they forage in fairly cold temperatures compared to many others.

Genadiy is a very kind man who exudes a love for what he does but he couldn’t avoid being downcast as he explained that due to the war, almost all their funding has dried up. He barely scratched enough money together to fix a roof that collapsed during the Winter, nearly destroying some of the museum’s displays and archives. Officially, they could not generate revenue from visitors because there is no bomb shelter on the grounds so they cannot legally be open to the public. Genadiy still maintained a twinkle in his eye and a glimmer of hope like we all do who have endured this war so far. All of us chatted for nearly an hour as he showed us some experimental hives that they were also seeking funding for. Genadiy smiled as he told us that the Apimondia Congress had said that their museum “Featured a collection that no other museum in the world comes close to.” (https://www.apimondia2013.com.ua/technical-tours).

Photo 5 (Art by Alexandr Chekmenev)

Those events are long gone now and maybe they have all been forgotten. The free hosting of the museum’s website is long since expired. Grass and shrubs are overgrown in many areas of the grounds. No visitors can come. Many beekeepers throughout Ukraine have been killed as soldiers as well as being hit by Russian missiles and artillery. A picture of a Langstorth hive painted in the blue and yellow of the Ukrainian flag, floating in water from the detonation of the Nova Kakhovka Dam and its resulting floodwaters as the honey bees so desperately clung as a swarm on the outside still haunts me. The story from a Ukrainian Telegram Channel (https://t.me/pravdaGerashchenko_en/27050) of a sixty-eight year old beekeeper named Serhiy (Photo 5 by Alexandr Chekmenev) who managed to grab some honeycombs before running into an underground shelter with nine children and nine adults who made candles from the beeswax to provide light for the scared children. Seven of the adults were executed by the Russians and ten others died due to the conditions in the cellar. Serhiy survived but only two out of his forty-two hives survived. The longing and pain of the photo of a beekeeper who lost so much still circulates among all the other horrors of this war.

Natasha (now a U.S. citizen) always speaks fondly of her years in the U.S. and how she loves the kindness and generosity of Americans. We drove away and decided that despite being busy, dealing with our own war issues, that maybe we should start a Facebook page for the Petro Prokopovych National Beekeeping Museum. Here is this treasure of Ukraine and of international beekeeping history that may be lost or fall into serious disrepair because of the actions of a murderous enemy that is trying to destroy Ukrainian history, culture and people. According to some sources, Ukraine is the top honey producer in Europe and in the top five countries worldwide. Yet, there is no mechanism beyond this small operation to conduct experiments, catalogue beekeepers, pests, diseases and promote beekeeping in Ukraine. Here, in the place where the first commercial beehive was invented, there is little hope among the staff that anyone will help. The value alone for beekeepers in North America related to the Carpathian and Steppes variant bees is enough for someone to come to the rescue. Then, I thought, well, maybe if people there actually knew the story, those values that Natasha cherishes so much would immediately come into play.

Author Bio
John Gordon Sennett is a U.S. citizen living in Ukraine since November 2020 with his wife Natasha (Prokopvych). Natasha’s family in Ukraine has a long history of beekeeping. She bought John a hive for his 50th birthday and he was hooked. John was an urban hobbyist beekeeper in Lakeland, Florida for four years where he was an active member of the Ridge Beekeeper’s Association in Polk County and kept three modified Langstroth Long Hives with feral bees.

Paypal to donate to the National Beekeeping Museum: bee_kievmuseum@ukr.net

Originally published in the August/September 2023 issue of The Bee Line

While giving a tap room talk on honey bees for The Farmer’s Lyceum speaker series at the Pour Farm in Union last Summer, I was approached by a woman carrying a bottle of honey. She stated she worked with several beekeepers at the Maine State Prison and when she heard I was speaking, came bearing a gift from the beekeeping residents. What ensued was a conversation regarding her work with them, specifically around offering beekeeping education and assisting with management of their hives. I expressed a desire to visit and interview the men who were keeping bees for an article in The Bee Line. We exchanged contact information with plans to reconnect in the Spring and establish a time for visitation. Those plans came to fruition this Summer.

Prior to scheduling a visit to the prison, it was necessary to complete credentialing requirements and training for volunteers. Upon entering the prison with only my keys, license, a writing pad and pen, I registered and waited for an escort to arrive. Rebekah Mende, the vocational trades instructor (VTI), the same individual who reached out and attended the talk a year prior, met me in the waiting area and explained the process of entering the heart of the prison. While walking to our destination, Rebekah reviewed some statistics and protocols regarding the prison. This maximum security prison has the capacity for 1,100 residents, however currently houses 800 men along with 400 staff including day/night shifts, security, support staff and contracted professionals (medical and mental health staff). While incarcerated, residents refer to each other by their last name to create distance, however with visitors, they utilize their first name or first initial only to identify themselves. I was not permitted to bring in a cell phone, tablet, record the interview or take photos. All photos in this article were taken by Rebekah or someone she designated. As we meandered down hallways and across the community grounds, I noted how beautifully landscaped the area was with both flower and vegetable gardens. Residents complete master gardening and horticulture programs as well as beekeeping if they so choose and volunteer to work in both the gardens and the hives. Of the food grown, 80% is utilized at the prison and 20% is donated to food banks in the area.

Programs offered to residents include the five week beekeeping program and the master gardener program with its greenhouse as its hub. The facility recently became registered as a monarch waystation. Residents find the larvae, put them in cages awaiting their maturity to caterpillars and finally as butterflies. At that time, they are tagged, released and tracked.

To date, 88 residents have gone through the five week beekeeper program. Currently, there are 53 beekeepers involved in varying degrees of participation. “I realized I don’t have to be the expert; my goal for the program is to have residents become the experts in keeping bees” states Rebekah. This year, they started the beekeeping season with eight hives. Two of the hives, which began as packages, are struggling. Last year, construction of stone pads for the colonies was begun with the hope to finish them this year, along with installing a wind break and elevating the hives further off the ground.

The fruits of their gardening labors were readily apparent as we approached the area where the beekeepers were waiting. With the greenhouse as the backdrop along with carts of watering cans, wheelbarrows and garden tools, I took a seat at the picnic table and was introduced to the beekeepers by first name prior to the start of the interview. They talked informally about how they try to get into the hives on a weekly basis and are now working hard on trying to raise a queen after adding extra frames of eggs and brood. Shaun discussed how he searched for the perfectly aged larvae and lots of eggs in a frame, placed it in a nuc with extra bees figuring “they have to make something!” He spoke of the collective discouragement of the beekeepers this Spring when hive eight was the only overwintered colony out of nine colonies. “We are ready to do varroa mite treatments after seeing serious wing deformities in the bees. They are struggling.”

I began the interview with the question of whether anyone had prior experience with bees before becoming residents at the prison. Kevin had no prior experience and Shaun, who is in his second year keeping bees, had no previous experience but “tore apart every book on beekeeping I could find.” Henry, although new to beekeeping, was not new to agriculture. “When I leave here, I’m going back to the farm to keep bees. They are so important for pollination and gardening.” Jerry took the class in 2018 and has been a beekeeper for five years. He stated “as soon as you open a hive you’re hooked.” Jeff had no previous exposure to bees but reiterated “it is a great little program; it’s neat to learn and handle everything.” Chris, a third year beekeeper, first became involved in the gardening program and then realized the connection with pollinators which “inspired me to look at beekeeping.” F is a first year beekeeper with no prior beekeeping experience or interest. “I took Mende’s botany class at UMA and that put me back into flowers and plants. I wanted to learn as much as I could so I took the beekeeping class.” Colin was introduced to beekeeping in 2021 when the editor of their newsletter asked him to do the artwork for an issue. He created a bee comic strip which he was able to do after learning about bees. Danny commented “I didn’t want to sit around doing nothing. I wanted to fill my time with something purposeful. Becoming involved with the bees has helped me build coping skills and ideas for the future that I can put into my toolbox for when I start my life outside.” Mark, the editor of the beekeepers newsletter, said “I had friends who had bees and I was always interested.”

Nadim, who was unable to attend in person, did respond in writing about the benefits of the program. “As someone who took Mende’s beekeeping class last year, I can attest to the benefits of the program. It provides valuable vocational training and has a positive impact on the mental well-being of participants by reducing stress levels and improving relationships among incarcerated citizens and staff members. Beekeeping classes instill in us a sense of self worth and responsibility and offer numerous benefits to society. By learning the craft of beekeeping, we develop new skills and confidence that we can utilize once we leave prison, leading to employment and a reduced likelihood of re-offending. The beekeeping program at this prison is an excellent example of the benefits of quality educational programs, essential for successful reintegration into society. Educational and vocational programs like these are proof that we can use education as a means of transformation, even in challenging environments.” Greg responded “I’m blessed to be one of the original people who took the beekeeping class in 2017. We started with a few packages, dug into the hives weekly and it was always exciting and fun.” Rebekah chimed in “he has the Midas touch; he can spot a queen five yards away.” A retort of “it’s the only reason we keep him kicking around” followed, at which point Greg quipped, “Can you feel the love?” He shared a story of when he first got suited up, taped his ankles and wrists and when asked whether he was ready, stopped dead in his tracks and sheepishly uttered “I gotta pee.”

The men were reflective when asked what has amazed them the most about keeping bees. Greg commented first. “You go in, put in a frame of foundation, go back and find they have drawn out the foundation with wax, then the queen goes and lays eggs and you find all this brood and then they jam the cells with pollen and nectar.

Last year we just put in a bar and it was cool to see the bees pull down three little ‘dippity dos’ of foundation on their own. It’s just watching nature.”

Richard stated “the first thing I notice is the smell of the hive.” Kevin replied “I’m a man of God and it amazes me to watch God’s creatures be so obedient and know what to do. No one has to guide or lead them.”

Henry said “I’ve never been scared. Being in the hives makes me realize how gentle and forgiving they are… that is so amazing to me.” Shaun stated “the thing that amazes me the most is their ability to survive anything and pass on their genes. If the hive goes queenless, they have the ability to know what is needed at the time.” Jeff remarked that he is astounded by the whole process; “how these little creatures can handle all their business; start off with nothing and get honey in the end. They just kill it!” Danny was surprised by the difference in the taste of natural honey versus store bought honey. “I’ve been lied to! The stuff you buy in the store isn’t honey! He was also cognizant of the effect bees have on the community of beekeepers at the prison. “It has taken on a spirit of its own and has brought us closer together as a community. There is talk of it all the time.” F shared that “bees impact us; people who never talked to each other before now have something in common.” He was also astonished that after all the grounds are mowed, the bees can still find food. John was touched most by their nature, creating life and being a conduit to the further progression of plants and their part in the world.” Colin felt they were important to the world in general. “If there were no bees we would struggle to survive.” Mark was moved by their work ethic. “If an animal, like a skunk, comes in and damages their comb, they repair it. We come here… don’t have anything… but work toward something… and eventually have everything we need. Bees are the same way; they start off with nothing, then create cells which they fill with honey, food and eggs. They work their tails off… just like us.”

The question of what has been the most difficult aspect of keeping bees elicited a number of responses which the group could collectively agree upon. Mark began the discussion stating “watching us lose them. We work so hard to keep them alive. We started with one, got seven new ones to make eight and then found out only one survived.” Greg said “it’s hard when you overwinter them and take the cover off in early Spring, find the hive alive and then two weeks later, the hive is dead.” When we talked about possible culprits which may have resulted in the dead outs, they identified mites, small cluster size and cold as the three main causes. We discussed Winter bees and the importance of treating for mites which prompted many questions about thresholds and miticides. When the targeted discussion resumed, Henry shared the most difficult thing for him was “not being able to be in the hives more often; having such a hands off approach to them. I so want an observation hive.” Shaun felt location has been difficult in that “we have to rely on other people to get out to them. Trying to help a struggling hive survive with limited resources in terms of bees and brood is tough.” Danny felt the hardest thing was waiting for the honey to be ready to extract and the sheer amount of information you need to know.

The beekeepers were asked whether they would like more educational opportunities regarding management of their colonies. Henry was eager to say “I would love an advanced beekeeping course, have a hands-on queen rearing course and have more knowledge in general. I have read every back issue of American Bee Journal and Bee Culture that we have and I’ve ordered books.” Shaun stated “I would like to work with Mende to create an advanced beekeeping class and after three years, try to get a master beekeeping certificate through Cornell here on grounds. I want to take a couple of hives and learn how to make queens. We already have a three part mating nuc, grafting bar and Chinese grafting tool. Now to get to the next step. I really want to rear queens and produce enough queens to help people in the area. Cornell has a special rate for prison residents which is $500 and has adapted a model to work inside correctional settings. They are willing to accept a video tape of a hive inspection. We don’t know how we are going to pay for it yet though.” When asked if they could use proceeds from honey sales, Shaun indicated they don’t sell any honey. All the honey which is extracted goes to the beekeepers in the program, staff and the kitchen. Greg has a lot of interest in top bar hives and wishes to learn more.

In conclusion of our time together, I asked them what their personal goals were with beekeeping. Henry wishes to return to the farm where bees will be an integral part of his life there. Mark wants his daughter to have bees instead of a puppy and plans to implement that once he walks out of the prison doors. Shaun not only wants to become a master beekeeper but desires to “help Mende train up the next group of beekeepers to be the best we can be, get all the hives through Winter because we did everything right.” Shaun spoke about how “beekeeping gives him a purpose; I love teaching and learning. It gives me the opportunity to pursue something and not get lost down a rabbit hole. It makes my brain happy to try new things.” Henry said “bees give me a sense of community. Everything you do in this prison, every group you are involved with expands your experiences and changes the climate. The more people who get involved, the kinder and gentler the environment becomes.” Colin felt that working with the bees will continue to influence his artistic abilities. Mark shared “it keeps me motivated, opens my eyes to different things I’ve never experienced before. We can call it “ours”. It has definitely changed me.”

As we walked to the apiary to see their hives buzzing with activity at all the front entrances, they were eager to talk about the different colonies and the issues intrinsic to each of them. I was given a tour of their newly organized storage area which they had proudly worked on a few days before. Feeders, supers, honey buckets, frames, woodenware and insulation for winterizing all had their designated areas for easy access.

While strolling back to their main work area, I asked them what their needs or wants were at this point in their beekeeping journey. Their responses included:

• someone to teach them about queen rearing and grafting
• more educational opportunities with guest speakers
• an observation hive so they could watch bees throughout the year

For anyone who has a desire to spend time with these beekeepers or has an observation hive, large or small that they wish to donate, please contact me at rmllamas1@gmail.com.

The beekeepers were most appreciative of the visit and interview. I found the experience both humbling and insightful. Several of their responses touched me as well as the parallels they drew between the bees and themselves. Not knowing what to expect initially, I would return in a heartbeat to work with them in their hives and spend time in the classroom both teaching and learning from them.

Originally published in The Bee Line: https://mainebeekeepers.org/the-beeline/

The Yellow-legged Hornet, Vespa velutina, has been discovered in the state of Georgia! This social wasp, native to Asia, preys extensively on honey bees and other pollinators. Its arrival in North America, while not wholly unexpected, is a cause for alarm for beekeepers and agriculture in general. What is this wasp? Why is it a concern? What can we do to control it? And how concerned should we be at this time?

Figure 1. Yellow-legged Hornet, Vespa velutina, at rest. Photo taken in France, courtesy of Patrick Le Mao

Figure 1. A Yellow-legged Hornet hovers in front of a hive, awaiting incoming forager bees. Photos taken in France, courtesy of Quentin Rome / Muséum national d’Histoire naturelle, Paris, France.

V. velutina is a large wasp, approximately 0.7–1.0 inch (1.7–2.5 cm) in length and with distinctive yellow legs (Fig. 1). It is a social insect, with colonies composed of numerous workers and a slightly larger queen (Pérez-de-Heredia et al., 2017). The species has been studied extensively, both within its native range and in the regions of western Europe, South Korea and Japan it has invaded. Its colonies, founded by a single mated queen, become more populous as Summer progresses. By late Summer, its large, round papery nests, usually concealed by leaves in tree-tops, contain hundreds of worker hornets. To feed their larvae, they capture a wide variety of insects, with the Western Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) being a favored prey species, in part because stationary honey bee colonies provide food consistently for weeks on end (Fig. 1; Roy, 2023). Laurino et al. (2020) provided a review of the biology of the species and its invasion of Europe, where programs to control the species cost millions of dollars annually.

Figure 2. Distribution of V. veluntina (a) in Asia where it occurs naturally and has been introduced to South Korea and Japan, and (b) in Europe where it has been introduced. The red dot indicates where the first hornets were discovered in 2004. (Maps from (a) iNaturalist.org and (b) INPN (2023), used with permission of Quentin Rome / MNHN

Vespa velutina naturally inhabits a region that extends from northern China south through Indonesia and Southeast Asia, and westward along the foothills of the Himalayas to Afghanistan (Fig. 2a). Over that range, it occurs in 13 different color forms (formerly referred to as subspecies). It is likely that the hornets in Georgia are of the northern mainland form, V. velutina nigrothorax, that has also invaded Europe (Fig. 2b) and northeastern Asia. V. v. nigrothorax has often been inappropriately referred to in much of the literature written about it as the “Asian hornet”, a misnomer given that all 22 species of hornets inhabit some part of Asia!

The life cycle of the Yellow-legged Hornet is generally the same as that of all species of hornets (i.e., wasps in the genus Vespa) in temperate climates (Laurino et al., 2020). A mated queen emerges from her wintering site and becomes active in Spring when the weather becomes suitable. After a period of feeding on floral nectar and tree sap, followed by dispersal estimated to exceed 30 miles (50 km) in some instances, she individually constructs a small comb enclosed within a papery envelope made from plant fibers she chews and mixes with her saliva. The queen then rears the first generation of hornets by herself in an “embryo nest.” When those first workers have completed their development and emerge as adults, they take over most colony activities (nest construction, brood care, foraging and colony defense) while the queen continues to lay most, if not all, eggs. Towards Fall, the colony rears new queens and males. Those new queens mate with males, search for a wintering site that is usually in soil, leaf litter or rotten wood, and become quiescent for several months while temperatures are too cool for activity. It is while they are in Winter diapause that the queens can be accidentally transported long distances as stowaways among cargo on ships and, less frequently, on planes. This is almost certainly how Yellow-legged Hornets arrived in Georgia: the sites where the first individuals were discovered are within 12 miles of the Port of Savannah, one of the largest shipping ports in North America that receives cargo from everywhere in the world.

One important difference between the Yellow-legged Hornet and other species is the relatively large number of males with which young queens mate. The majority of hornet species that have been studied, mate with one or sometimes two males. In contrast, V. velutina queens mate with three males on average (range from one to 5+). The invasion of Europe by this species is believed to have originated from a single queen, mated with four males, that was accidentally imported to southwestern France (Fig. 2b). The added genetic variability provided by mating with several males has undoubtedly contributed to its successful invasions (reviewed by Otis et al., 2023).

Vespa velutina colonies can become very large. Quentin Rome and his colleagues (2015) collected nests in southwestern France from June to November and quantified their populations of immature and adult hornets. The colonies, generally initiated in March, had an average of 440 worker hornets by late October and early November. Some of those nests remained very small, but the most populous colony had 1,740 workers (News reports that colonies may contain 6,000 or more workers are erroneous). Mature colonies in Fall contained an average of 190 new queens (Rome et al., 2015), but because young queens only remain in their nest for about two weeks, that number must represent only a portion of all queens reared. I estimate that the average number reared is approximately 300–400 per colony. The greatest number of new queens collected inside one single nest was 463.

In an odd quirk of biology, hornet larvae serve as reservoirs of food within their colony. Larvae convert the proteins in chewed-up insect prey collected by worker hornets into amino-acid rich sugars. They then feed those secretions to young queens, resulting in them increasing in weight by 20–40% within one to two weeks of emergence as adults due to deposition of fat that fuels their survival during several months of Winter diapause. Young males also require the nutrients provided by larvae in order to mature sexually. Because hornets do not store honey in their nests, the sugary secretions from larvae also sustain their colonies during periods of inclement weather when foraging is not possible (reviewed by Otis et al. 2023).

How does the Yellow-legged Hornet affect honey bees and other pollinators?
The greatest concern related to the establishment of Yellow-legged Hornets in North America is their effects on honey bees and other pollinators. These hornets capture a wide variety of flying insects, a high percentage of which are pollinators, to feed to their larvae. Honey bees in particular are heavily preyed upon. Hornets hover near a hive entrance, facing outwards, so they can pick off incoming foragers (Fig. 1). Once a hive has been located, a hornet can return repeatedly to prey upon the essentially defenseless honey bees. Dr. Yves Le Conte, former head of the French honey bee research unit in Avignon, told me that by late Summer, when honey bees colonies should “prepare good Winter bees and collect honey for Winter survival, the hornets put pressure on the bees.” Hornets seem to focus on weaker colonies and in some cases, once they have killed most of the bees in a hive, they may enter and eat both the brood and the honey. In addition to the constant attrition of foraging bees, the presence of multiple hornets at the entrance of a colony causes “foraging paralysis” in extreme cases, flight activity is completely suppressed. The reduced foraging results in low honey stores and Winter starvation, with losses of 30–50% often reported (Yves Le Conte, pers. comm.; Requier et al., 2019). This hornet is a very significant threat to honey bees!

What has happened in Georgia in 2023?
From the information I have been able to obtain, Yellow-legged Hornets were first observed on or before August 1st by Sarah Beth Waller (personal communication), the beekeeper at the Savannah Bee Company on the eastern edge of Savannah where they were feeding on fallen pears. She posted a photo to iNaturalist on August 7th that yielded a tentative identification of the hornet as Vespa velutina (iNaturalist, 2023). Also in early August, a beekeeper somewhere in Savannah (at a date and location that have yet to be revealed by the Georgia Department of Agriculture) collected two hornets as they visited his hives. They were identified first by a University of Georgia entomologist and subsequently confirmed by the USDA on August 9th (GDA, 2023a). Thanks to news reports on August 15th about this discovery, a homeowner in the vicinity of the Savannah Bee Company reported a large nest 75 feet up in a pine tree. That nest, destroyed on the evening of August 23rd, proved to be exceptionally large (GDA 2023a, b). Keith Delaplane (University of Georgia) informed me that hornet traps of an unknown type have been deployed by the GDA from Port Wentworth to the mouth of the Savannah River, a distance of 18 miles. One person I interviewed was of the understanding that the first two locations where the hornets were observed are approximately eight miles apart, which, if true, would suggest that additional colonies may be present (hornets usually forage within a mile of their nest). Hornets have been sent for genetic analysis to determine if they originated in Europe or Asia. The situation in Savannah is fluid and changing rapidly. By the time this article is published, much more will be known and divulged. It may take a year or more before we know whether this incipient infestation has been eradicated.

What can be done to reduce the threat posed by the Yellow-legged Hornet?
Traps of many designs have been developed and tested in Europe. They have proven moderately effective for monitoring the presence of the hornet, but do not catch sufficient hornets to appreciably affect established colonies. Moreover, they have been criticized for their extensive by-catch of non-target insects. If the traps that have been deployed in Georgia capture additional hornets, finding and destroying their nests before new queens disperse into the environment presents the greatest probability of successful eradication. As an example, in spite of repeated discovery of Yellow-legged Hornet colonies in southern England, coordinated efforts of agricultural personnel, beekeepers and scientists have so far been successful at preventing the wasp’s establishment in the United Kingdom (Jones et al., 2020). On the Mediterranean island of Mallorca, the combination of Spring trapping of gynes before they establish nests, baiting for foragers, and triangulating and destroying colonies before they produce new queens, eliminated the initial infestation. There have been some successes in using very light-weight radio transmitters to track Vespa hornets to their nests (Kennedy et al., 2018; Looney et al. 2023). After a few years, however, once a population of hornets has become established, the proportion of nests that can be found and destroyed has proven in several European countries, to be insufficient to control the invasion.

Monitoring by state departments of agriculture (e.g., see the online form set up for reporting in Georgia; GDA 2023a) or through community-scientist platforms such as iNaturalist can provide accurate reporting of exotic hornets and other pests. Beekeepers can play a huge role in early detection of non-native hornets because several species that have the potential to become established in North America prey extensively on honey bees. Any wasp that seems unusual can be photographed or caught in a jar, then compared with similar species (USDA-APHIS, 2023). It should be reported if you suspect it is V. velutina or another non-native species.

Figure 3. Regions of North America with climate well suited to Yellow-legged Hornet survival. Other regions with lower climate suitability not shown. Adapted from Villemany et al. (2011).

Where is the Yellow-legged Hornet likely to survive in North America?
GIS technology coupled with climate data for localities throughout the world that are available online have revolutionized our ability to predict potential distributions of species outside of their native ranges. In the case of the Yellow-legged Hornet, climate variables from where the species has been documented in Asia as well as in its introduced range in France, were analyzed along with climate data for sites throughout the rest of the world. A map showing the probability of suitable climate for hornet survival was created (Villemant et al., 2011). I superimposed the North American portion of that map onto a map of the United States, then modified it to show the approximate regions in North America where Vespa velutina would almost certainly be able to survive and reproduce (Fig. 3).

A large area of southeastern USA is predicted to have climate suitable for V. velutina. That region extends from the southern tip of Texas north into Oklahoma, then eastwards to somewhere between Baltimore and New York (Fig. 3.). Hornet survival may even be possible as far north as Boston and southern Ontario (Villemant et al., 2011). On the west coast, there is a zone in the rain shadow of the coastal mountains, from Vancouver, Canada, south into California, that seems prone to invasion. The hornet is likely to do better where the minimum temperature in Winter is not too cold, relative humidity is fairly high and the maximum temperature in Summer is not too hot.

Figure 4. The Northern Japanese Hornet, Vespa mandarinia, a species that invaded the Pacific Northwest in 2019. Photo taken by Aline Horikawa near Kyoto, Japan, and used with her permission.

What about other exotic species of hornets?
Who can forget the “invasion by murder hornets” in 2019–2021? The Northern Giant Hornet (formerly known as the Asian Giant Hornet), Vespa mandarinia, is a huge social hornet (Fig. 4; also, refer to the image within YLH lookalikes” in USDA-APHIS, 2023) that is infamous for its ability to rapidly slaughter entire colonies of Apis mellifera. Its discovery in Fall of 2019 led to an extensive monitoring and eradication effort that is on-going in Washington state and British Columbia. Following a peak of 35 sightings and specimens in 2020, there were only 10 reports in 2021 (Looney et al., 2023). Since then, there have been no Northern Giant Hornets detected in North America, and there is optimism that the introduction of this species has failed. It is not clear what combination of factors is responsible for the decline in its population: relatively unsuitable climate, low genetic diversity, destruction of nests (one in British Columbia, four in Washington state; Looney et al. 2023) or other factors. It is known that relatively few species that reach foreign lands are successful in establishing permanent populations. We may simply have gotten lucky with the recent Northern Giant Hornet introduction.

Several groups of researchers have modeled the potential distribution of V. mandarinia. All of them yielded a strong probability of it surviving in the Pacific Northwest where it was initially discovered as well as a large region of eastern North America; however, these models fail to agree on the regions in the east that are most prone to invasion. Because this species focuses its predation in late Summer and Fall on social insects, including honey bees, beekeepers are again the group most likely to encounter it. If you see any wasp attacking and killing honey bees, you should report it immediately.

Figure 5. The Oriental Hornet, Vespa orientalis, a demonstrated invader in northern Italy, southern France, Sardinia, southern Spain, eastern Europe and Chile. Photo taken by Nicola Addelfio near Palermo, Sicily, Italy, and used with her permission.

The Oriental Hornet (Vespa orientalis: Fig 5.), naturally inhabits the Mediterranean, Middle Eastern and western Asian countries and is the only hornet species adapted to hot, arid climates. This striking reddish brown hornet is an agricultural pest that attacks honey bee colonies and damages fleshy fruits such as grapes. It has already been detected in at least 10 countries outside of its native range (reviewed by Otis et al., 2023), and has successfully colonized southern Spain and Chile. Young queens often Winter in groups (Eran Levin, pers. comm.), a behavior which may have helped it to overcome genetic bottlenecks. Species distribution modeling suggests it has a high probability of successfully colonizing the Gulf Coast region of the United States as well as central California.

I would be remiss not to mention the European Hornet, also a large wasp that could be mistaken for one of the other species mentioned (USDA-APHIS, 2023). It was accidentally introduced to New York City nearly 180 years ago and has become relatively common in much of Eastern North America, but because it rarely captures honey bees and has relatively small colonies, it has not proven to be a concern for beekeeping.

Conclusion
Several hornet species cause extensive damage to honey bee colonies in other parts of the world. Unlike Varroa mites and small hive beetles, hornets do not inhabit bee colonies and would be very unlikely to be transported with hives when they are moved for pollination. However, they do have the potential to arrive at any port and subsequently be transported by trucks and trains anywhere in North America! The establishment of any of the exotic hornets discussed before would cause extensive disruption to beekeeping due to their predation on bees and secondary effects on Winter colony survival. The propensity of these hornets to attack honey bees makes beekeepers the most likely people to encounter them, as demonstrated recently with the detection of the Yellow-legged Hornet in Georgia. Readers are encouraged to learn how to identify them: review the figures in this article and “lookalikes” in USDA-APHIS (2023). Stay vigilant—and let’s hope that we remain “hornet-free” for many years to come.

Acknowledgments
I am indebted to Lien T.P. Nguyen of Vietnam and Heather Mattila of Wellesley College, MA, my hornet research collaborators, for the knowledge and experiences they have shared with me over the past decade. Staff at the University of Georgia, K. Cecelia Sequira of USDA-APHIS, and Sarah Beth Waller shared important information about the Yellow-legged Hornet detection in Georgia up until 27 August, 2023. I must also recognize the dozens of wasp biologists worldwide who have willingly answered my many naive questions about hornets.

Gard W. Otis
School of Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
Institute of Bee Health, University of Bern and Agroscope, Bern, Switzerland

Selected References
GDA (2023a). Georgia Department of Agriculture press release (Aug. 25, 2023). https://agr.georgia.gov/pr/yellow-legged-hornet-nest-eradicated-savannah-area
GDA (2023b) Georgia Department of Agriculture press conference (Aug. 25, 2023). https://www.facebook.com/watch/live/?ref=watch_permalink&v=639982398259487
iNaturalist (2023). Yellow-legged Hornet (Vespa velutina). https://www.inaturalist.org/taxa/119019-Vespa-velutina
INPN (2020). Le frailon asiatique, Vespa velutina. (The Asian Hornet, Vespa velutina). Inventarie National du Patrimoine Naturel. (http://frelonasiatique.mnhn.fr/)
Jones E.P., C. Conyers, V. Tomkies, et al. Managing incursions of Vespa velutina nigrithorax in the UK: an emerging threat to apiculture. Scientific Reports (2020) 10:19553. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-76690-2
Kennedy P.J., S.M. Ford, J. Poidatz, et al. (2018). Searching for nests of the invasive Asian hornet (Vespa velutina) using radiotelemetry. Communications Biology 1: 88. doi: 10.1038/s42003-018-0092-9
Laurino D, S. Lioy, L. Carisio, et al. (2020). Vespa velutina: an alien driver of honey bee colony losses. Diversity (2020) 12: 1–15. doi:10.3390/d12010005
Looney, C, B. Carman, J. Cena, et al. (2023) Detection and description of four Vespa mandarinia (Hymenoptera: Vespidae) nests collected in Washington State, USA. Journal of Hymenoptera Research 96: 1–20. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.96.99307
Otis, G.W., B.A. Taylor, and H.R. Mattila (2023). Invasion potential of hornets (Hymenoptera: Vespidae: Vespa spp.). Frontiers in Insect Science 3: 1145158. https://doi.org/10.3389/finsc.2023.1145158
Pérez-de-Heredia, I, E. Darrouzet, A. Goldarazena, et al. (2017). Differentiating between gynes and workers in the invasive hornet Vespa velutina (Hymenoptera, Vespidae) in Europe. Journal of Hymenoptera Research 60: 119–133. https://doi.org/10.3897/jhr.60.13505
Requier, F., Q. Rome, G. Chiron, et al. (1019), Predation of the invasive Asian hornet affects foraging activity and survival probability of honey bees in Western Europe. Journal of Pest Science 92: 567–578.
Rome, Q., F.J. Muller, A. Touret-Alby, et al. (2015). Caste differentiation and seasonal changes in Vespa velutina (Hym.: Vespidae) colonies in its introduced range. Journal of Applied Entomology 139: 771–782. https://doi.org/10.1111/jen.12210
Roy, H. (2023). BBC. Asian hornet guide. https://www.discoverwildlife.com/animal-facts/insects-invertebrates/asian-hornets-guide/
USDA-APHIS (2023). Yellow-legged Hornet. https://www.aphis.usda.gov/aphis/ourfocus/planthealth/plant-pest-and-disease-programs/honey-bees/yellow-legged-hornet (accessed 25 August, 2023).
Villemant C., M. Barbet-Massin, A. Perrard, et al. (2011). Predicting the invasion risk by the alien bee-hawking yellow-legged hornet Vespa velutina nigrithorax across Europe and other continents with niche models. Biological Conservation 144: 2142–50. doi: 10.1016/j.biocon.2011.04.009

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The Quiet Evolution of Apiary Mowing

A Necessary Aspect of Apiary Management
By: James E. Tew

My First Real Job
When I was a young teenager, a friend and I would push our mowers around the community and offer to cut grass. We generally earned somewhere between $1.75-2.50 per yard total. We had to split the earnings. The mowers were not self-propelled. Consequently, as young entrepreneurs, we never had a body weight problem.

We developed a regular customer list and at our peak, we were cutting about twenty lawns per week. General expectations were that we cut in straight lines and tips were not offered. When we were thirsty, we drank water from faucets plumbed from the house. Dad provided the mower and the gas, but I was allowed to keep my earnings. Of course, he got his lawn cut for free.

To this day, I cut grass in bullet-straight lines, and I only mow when the lawn absolutely needs it. Now, throughout every Summer month, I marvel at the equipment that professional mowing services have and I compare all that modern equipment to the absolute minimal equipment that my friend and I used all those years ago. Times change, don’t they?

Before Gasoline Mowers
Before gasoline mowers became widely available, lawns were cut using various manual methods and tools. The common methods used for lawn maintenance before gasoline mowers were scythes, sickles, weed slings, grazing animals, manual push mowers and scissors. None of these options were feasible without manual labor. Even grazing animals required fence installation. The invention of gasoline-powered mowers modernized lawn care and made it much more efficient and accessible for homeowners, landscapers and even beekeepers.

Figure 1. A Kansas beeyard in 1920. Note beekeeper in the lower left of the photo who is wearing a vintage Alexander veil and gauntlet gloves.

What Did this Mean for Apiaries?
It means that our apiaries, decades ago were weedier, and more unkempt by today’s standards. I cannot find information indicating that grazing animals were common methods for foliage management in pre-mower days. No doubt, cows, horses and sheep would occasionally knock over hives or scratch against them.

In the past, all apiary grass and weeds were cut manually requiring hot labor commitments. I’m old enough to remember life before string trimmers and herbicides. Everything was weedier then.

Figure 2. In 1922, in this Iowa beeyard, all grass was cut using manual methods. Gasoline mowers, of the day, were heavy and uncommon.

To Add to the Laborious Task
In years past, just as the present, protective bee gear was commonly worn when cutting and pruning near bee hives. Wearing protective equipment was just as clumsy now as it was years ago. The requirement to wear protective clothing has always made apiary weed control a hot, tiring job. Thankfully, modern protective equipment is better ventilated and more comfortable, but it is still hot work.

No-Mow May
Due to my early years of incessantly cutting grass, as a senior citizen, I am now a reluctant lawn mower. To the chagrin of my neighbors whose lawns are always neatly manicured, I only mow when I must. In this way, I avoid needless mowing sessions and my bees have access to the clover and dandelions in my lawn.

When I first heard of the concept, I readily embraced the notion of a “No-Mow May” in which we just give our lawns a month off from trimming. I quickly found out that a mow-less May lead me directly into a hellish June, with tall grass that frequently required raking after cutting. I had to go back to the lawn maintenance drawing board.

String Trimmers in the Apiary
I don’t remember the first time I used a string trimmer. With my mowing history that I touted before, that memory void seems strange to me. But I do know that a string trimmer became a necessary component of the equipment that always went with me to an outyard. String trimmers are now a common, if unexciting, beeyard management tool. What’s their story?

A Short History of String Trimmers
The history of string trimmers, also known as weed whackers, weed eaters or line trimmers, dates to the early 1970s. The concept of using a rotating nylon string to trim grass and weeds emerged as an alternative to traditional lawn mowers and manual cutting tools.

The concept of a rotating nylon line for cutting vegetation was developed in the late 1960s by George Ballas, a Houston-based entrepreneur. He got the idea while watching the revolving brushes at a car wash (I find this interesting. The common safety razor was envisioned after a visionary watched a woodworker use a common hand plane. The flail honey comb uncapper was conceptualized as another visionary watched the conveyor belt perform at a grocery store checkout. Shouldn’t we all be more observant?). In 1971, he received a patent for his invention, which consisted of a fishing reel with fishing line attached to the spool. Ballas’ invention was the foundation for the modern string trimmer.

In 1972, George Ballas partnered with Jim Goad, an engineer, to refine the design and create the first commercial string trimmer. They established the Weed Eater company and introduced the first gas-powered, handheld string trimmer to the market. This model quickly gained popularity due to its effectiveness in trimming grass and weeds in hard-to-reach areas.

In the late 1970s and early 1980s, electric string trimmers began to appear on the market. These models were lighter and quieter than their gas-powered counterparts, making them more appealing to homeowners with smaller yards.

Bees and Trimmers
No matter how useful power mowers and trimmers may be, on some mowing days, the bees seem to despise them. Most experienced beekeepers have seen this defensive behavior. In fact, common management recommendations warn the beekeeper to expect this attack. It is thought that the odors and vibrations from the mowers and trimmers agitate the bees.

In my own experience gained when trimming around hives, it seems that the bee response is greatest during Summer months when a nectar dearth has ended and the colonies are at full populations.

I have never used a battery-powered trimmer, but I am sure some of you have. I ask if you have noticed less of a response when using battery-powered mowers and trimmers? Does their quietness and lack of fumes have a more lenient effect on the colonies?

Beekeepers and Trimmers
At this moment, I have two, hand-held string trimmers. I have one modified with a cutting blade for heavy or tough growth. Brambles, such as multiflora rose, are a challenge for either type of cutting head.

Even though I frequently use them, I increasingly have issues with string trimmers. The evolving issue is that the older I become, my trimming sessions grow shorter and shorter. My shoulders ache. I get noise warnings from my Apple watch. I get hotter and hotter in the protective gear that I must wear. I simply can’t do the job the way I once could.

Figure 3. An apiary with uncontrolled grass growth.

Consequently, I have grown to dread the task more and more. All the while, the grass and weeds have continued to grow. Out of necessity, I developed a tolerant attitude of tall grasses and weeds in my apiary. I put my hives on firm hive stands that were twenty inches from the ground and I kept the entrance free of tall weeds. Even then, the grass and weeds in my beeyard continued to grow. My bees seemed unphased by the tall grass in the yards, but increasingly, it became apparent that this approach could not last. Why?

Two reasons that altered my laissez-faire system of yard maintenance evolved. The first reason was you, the reader of Bee Culture articles. Photos and videos that I captured in my apiary looked terrible. For instance, while I wanted to write about a new swarm that I just acquired, my photo of the new bee hive was marred by tall grass and the appearance of a generally unmanaged area. (If you have back issues of Bee Culture, you can readily see these photos.) I grew afraid that you, the reader, would not understand the bigger picture.

Figure 4. A manicured yard that uses herbicides, grazing animals and electric fencing to keeps foliage at bay. C. Parton Photo

Secondly, the tall weeds made it difficult for me walk while carrying a super of honey or other related bee equipment. Briars tugged at my suit. Tall grass made me stumble as I walked. Grass grew in and around my unused equipment. As with the No-Mow May scenario that I discussed earlier, I had to return to the drawing board. I was physically unable to trim my entire beeyard with a string trimmer and it was too much to ask of my 1972 Snapper push mower to systematically mow this tall grass.

A Heavy Duty, Walk-Behind Trimmer
I would occasionally see advertisements for various models of walk-behind trimmers. I asked around my circle of beekeeping friends, but no one had experience with these machines. I checked online. Yes, wheel kits were available for my string trimmers. In theory, I could modify my handheld trimmers to be mobile. Again, I asked around my circle of beekeeping friends, but no one had experience with these wheel kits either. All the while, the grass continued to grow. Would a trimmer on wheels allow me to work longer and more consistently?

Figure 5. A walk-behind Cord Trimmer.

In mid-July, with apiary grass higher than my knees, I broke. This situation in my apiary was unacceptable and was never going to get better. I went to an equipment dealer to buy a wheel kit. They did not have one, but they did have a single walk-behind trimmer on the showroom floor. It was $400. I bought it on the spot. It uses four .175” spiral cutting cords and cuts a twenty-two-inch swatch. It cuts at five heights – from 1.5” to 3.5”. I set it to the highest setting. The machine fairly easily chewed through the tall weeds leaving me with a somewhat rough-looking finished job, but the weeds were readily cut down.

The nose on the machine does a reasonably good job of getting beneath my hive stands – not perfect – but reasonably good. The cords are not cost free and they do wear out, but the machine aggressively took out tall weeds. It worked.

The major drawback is that I must still push the machine through tall grass. That requires old fashioned perspiration, but it’s still easier than using a handheld string unit. Please know that I am not selling these units. I’m only looking for a yard maintenance remedy.

For beekeepers younger than or more physically fit than I am, a typical string trimmer would get the job done. As I have written in previous articles, I’m at a stage of my beekeeping where I try to put wheels on everything. String trimmers were no exception. I should also say that while the bees didn’t go crazy, I still needed to wear light protective gear when using the machine.

Figure 6. Weed whacking beneath hives.

Hot and Clumsy
This past July 2023 was the hottest July every recorded. Yet the grass kept growing. To keep the grass under control, grass-cutting beekeepers are hot, and clumsy, and are surrounded by irate bees. Can it get any worse? Yes, it can, at the same time, we are also using power mowing equipment. Occasionally, accidents happen. This is a beekeeper’s recent story.

Figure 7. Accidents happen quickly. Attacking bees can be distracting. Many of us have a story.

I got home from work and my wife wanted to cut the grass but she’d never used that particular riding mower. I changed out of my work boots into my Crocs and pulled the mower out of the garage for her. I decided to make a couple passes by my bee hives so my wife wouldn’t get stung.

My bees have never bothered me before. On the first pass, I had hundreds of bees come after me. They were stinging me so much that I was fearful I might have an allergic reaction. I quickly decided to jump off the riding mower and make a run for the house. My foot got caught in the pulley and belt on the mower deck. My croc stayed lodged in the mower belt while I ran into the house. When I got inside and got all the bees off me, I realized how badly my foot was hurt.

I went to the Emergency Room where they said it had broken my toe and cut a tendon. It almost cut my toe off. I had 12 stitches and had to wear a Draco shoe that keeps the weight on my heel and off my toe until my broken toe can heal.

Mowing is Not Beekeeping
Every apiary mowing situation is different but presently, we have an abundance of diversified mowing devices. That selection of devices does not mean that mowing is not hot, demanding work. Don’t go crazy cutting grass and weeds, but when you do mow, I would suggest wearing heavy shoes and a ventilated bee suit with a veil that opens to allow for water sips. Have a lit smoker at the ready. Mowing is not beekeeping. Pace yourself.

Thank you.
I appreciate you reading and sending any comments that you may have. Your time is valuable. I know that.

Dr. James E. Tew
Emeritus Faculty, Entomology
The Ohio State University
tewbee2@gmail.com

Co-Host, Honey Bee
Obscura Podcast
www.honeybeeobscura.com

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Beekeeping

A Doorway to Nature
By: Ross Conrad

It has been suggested that a spiritual crisis is at the center of the long emergency we collectively face. This crisis manifests itself as a disconnect from the natural world and is considered by many to be one of the primary forces driving the growing degradation of environmental health. When we see ourselves as separate from the natural world, we view nature through the lens of how valuable it is to us personally, either economically or for its beauty. This is the typical Western approach to the notion of pristine wilderness. When we place such values on the natural world and its “resources” viewing it simply as a means to gain financial wealth or other material benefits, it can reinforce our separation from it.

Research indicates that people who have a strong emotional and spiritual connection to nature are more likely to behave positively towards the environment, wildlife and habitats. This suggests that nurturing a greater connection to the natural world among the general population may be critical in addressing our spiritual crisis and helping to reverse the current environmental emergency. There are many ways this nurturing of our connection can manifest including hiking and camping, fishing and hunting, farming and gardening, or bird watching.

For the readers of Bee Culture, beekeeping likely provides one of our primary windows into the natural world. Through beekeeping, we enter the fascinating world of the honey bee; from the waggle dance and the intricacies of swarm behavior, to honey bee biology and the production, use, and unique characteristics of the products of the hive. Our fascination with bees stems from our personal connection to them and our deep understanding of them and their ways. It has been claimed that the honey bee and beekeeping is the most studied and written about topic in the world, second only to us humans. The truth of course, is that all living creatures are absolutely fascinating: we just tend to be clueless to most of the wonder, beauty and amazing intricacies and relationships involved in the lives of the plants, animals and insects that surround us and that we may come into contact with. We simply don’t interact with them enough to understand them and their ways, as well as we do the honey bee, and this can result in their being under-appreciated.

The world of beekeeping acts as a doorway through which we are able to then connect with the wider natural world of all the pests, diseases, plants and weather patterns that impact our bees; for better or worse.

The truth is that we are not separate from nature and the earth. Our bodies are literally made of the same minerals of the earth; we live our lives on the earth surrounded by the natural world; and when we die our body goes back to the earth and eventually gets recycled by the natural world. What we do to the natural world, we do to ourselves. We may not die when a rare pollinator dies out and becomes extinct, but surely a small part of something within us dies, something sacred and precious.

A host of studies have pointed to the fact that the stronger our personal connection to the natural world, the greater our concern for the environment (Whitburn et al., 2019; Mackay and Smidtt, 2019). There is also strong evidence of a positive relationship between a person’s connection to the natural world and one’s personal health, wellbeing and happiness (Capaldi et al., 2014; Barragan-Jason et al., 2023). When individuals are exposed to natural environments, such as mountain tops, coastlines, meadows and forests, the exposure results in stress reduction and assists in mental recovery following intense cognitive activities. It has even been found that a hospital window view onto a garden-like scene can be influential in reducing patients’ postoperative recovery periods and analgesic requirements.

Beekeeping provides a doorway through which individuals can develop a strong spiritual connection to the natural world, especially those living in urban or suburban environments.

Embedded in diverse cultures around the world is the idea that people consciously and unconsciously seek connections with the natural world. The theory that this is a result of evolutionary history where humans have lived in intimate contact with nature was initially put forward by Harvard biologist and two-time Pulitzer prize-winner, E.O. Wilson, in the Biophilia hypothesis (Wilson, 1984). We humans appear to be innately attracted to other living organisms. Evidence suggests that this is particularly evident when life becomes difficult and stressful. How many of us can deny the relaxing effect of a quiet moment by a lake, the soothing effect of sitting by a river, the rejuvenation of a hike through a forest, a stress reducing stroll by the seaside, the calming effect of simply cuddling with a pet dog or cat, or spending time with the honey bee colonies in our apiaries. Simply put, we need contact with nature and the importance of our ability to connect with the natural world has only grown due to our increasingly urban, digital-screen and social media lifestyles that often serve to disconnect us from nature which in turn, may contribute to health and wellbeing problems.

One meta-analysis suggests positive short- and long-term health outcomes with improved self-esteem and mood with exposure to green environments. Proximity to water generated some of the greatest changes and the mentally ill experience the greatest self-esteem improvements (Barton and Pretty, 2010). Other researchers examining the link between finding meaning in life and our relationship to the natural world suggest numerous benefits that arise from a personal connection to the natural world. Not only does nature help us find meaning in life, it can enhance our appreciation for life, and how engaging in nature-based activities (such as beekeeping) “provides an avenue for many people to build meaningful lives” (Passmore and Krouse, 2023).

The idea that contact with nature benefits our mental and physical health appears to be strongly supported by the statistics. According to one researcher, “Animals have always played a prominent part in human life. Today, more people go to zoos each year than to all professional sporting events. A total of 56% of U.S. households own pets. Animals comprise more than 90% of the characters used in language acquisition and counting in children’s preschool books. Numerous studies establish that household animals are considered family members; we talk to them as if they were human, we carry their photographs, we share our bedrooms with them” (Frumkin, 2001).

Beekeepers have their own version of this in what is referred to as the “telling of the bees.” A tradition where it is believed that when the beekeeper dies, someone has to go tell the bees and perhaps hang a piece of black cloth on the hive to place it in mourning or else the colony would die out or abandon the hive. There appears to be many versions of this. Others tell the bees about important events in their lives particularly regarding a death in the family. Considering how easy it is for a beekeeper to put off caring for their bees with our busy lives, this tradition practically served as a way to keep the hives in the thoughts of those that survive a deceased beekeeper, so that they will hopefully prioritize finding a new custodian to take over responsibility for their care in a timely manner.

As a deep personal connection to the natural world, beekeeping has the potential to provide numerous benefits to its participants. Beekeeping encourages one to get exercise along with fresh air and sunshine, and there is significant evidence that suggests that even the occasional bee sting can help fortify the body’s immune system allowing it to more effectively deal with various ailments (provided of course that the person is not hyper allergic to honey bee venom). Beyond all this, we now know that beekeeping can also help establish a spiritual connection to the earth and all the life forms with which we share this planet; a connection that may be critical in our ability to effectively deal with our current reliance on damaging green-house gas emitting technologies that are slowly turning our lives and society upside down.

Many people are suggesting that the weather extremes we have been experiencing around the country and the world is the problem, when really the problem at its base level is the malevolent actions of individual people. Nurturing a greater connection to the natural world in greater numbers of people, such as through activities like beekeeping, might just hold part of the salvation for this world. Something to consider as you go about the business of caring for your bees this Autumn and are tucking your colonies in for the long Winter ahead.

Just the same as a month before,—
The house and the trees,
The barn’s brown gable, the vine by the door,—
Nothing changed but the hives of bees.

Before them, under the garden wall,
Forward and back,
Went drearily singing the chore-girl small,
Draping each hive with a shred of black.

Trembling, I listened: the Summer sun
Had the chill of snow;
For I knew she was telling the bees of one
Gone on the journey we all must go!

An excerpt from the poem Telling the Bees by John Greenleaf Whittier.
Read the full poem here: https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/45491/telling-the-bees

Ross Conrad is the author of Natural Beekeeping, Revised and Expanded 2nd Edition, and coauthor of The Land of Milk and Honey: A history of beekeeping in Vermont.

References:
Barragan-Jason, G., Loreau, M., de Mazancourt, C., Singer, M.C., Parmesan, C. (2023) Psychological and physical connections with nature improve both human well-being and nature conservation: A systematic review of meta-analyses, Biological Conservation, Volume 277:109842
Barton J, Pretty J. (2010) What is the best dose of nature and green exercise for improving mental health? A multi-study analysis. Environmental Science & Technology, 44(10):3947-55. doi: 10.1021/es903183r. PMID: 20337470.
Capaldi, C.A., Dopko, R.L., Zelenski, J.M. (2014) The relationship between nature connectedness and happiness: a meta-analysis, Frontiers in Psychology, Volume 5
Howard Frumkin, (2001) Beyond Toxicity: Human health and the natural environment, American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 20(3):234-240, ISSN 0749-3797, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0749-3797(00)00317-2
Mackay, C.M.L. and Schmitt, M.T. (2019) Do people who feel connected to nature do more to protect it? A meta-analysis, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 65:101323
Passmore, Holli-Anne and Krouse, Ashley, N. (2023) The Beyond-Human Natural World: Providing Meaning and Making Meaning, International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(12):6170
Whitburn, J., Linklater, W., Abrahamse, W. (2019) Meta-Analysis of human connection to nature and proenvironmental behavior, Conservation Biology, https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.13381
Wilson, E. O. (1984) Biophilia: the Human Bond with Other Species.: Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA.

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Found in Translation

Mite Drop!
By: Jay Evans, USDA Beltsville Bee Lab

Varroa mites remain the primary source of honey bee colony losses for beekeepers managing from one to 10,000 colonies. Scientists like us and ardent beekeepers are always on the hunt for new ways to reduce varroa damage to bees and their colonies. One intriguing strategy is to make mites simply fall off their adult bee hosts. Short of changing the electric charge of host or parasite, this repellency can come from 1) making hosts less grippy, 2) somehow clogging the incredibly strong tarsi (feet with ‘toes’ and a spongy, oily, arolia) of mites or 3) affecting mite behavior by making them less likely to find safe spots and hang on to their bees for dear life. Dislodged mites are far more vulnerable to hygienic worker bees and might also simply keep falling down to a hostless, hungry and hopefully, short life. This is probably a central reason that female varroa mites spend very little time wandering the combs of beehives unless they are moments away from entering the brood cell of a developing bee. While on adult bees, mites have much incentive to stay right there, whatever their host is doing to drop them.

How do mites adhere to their bees so strongly? When mites are actively feeding on bees they are extremely hard to dislodge, since they are partly under the hardened plates of the bee itself and are gripping with a combination of ‘teeth’ and tarsi. Even while taking a break from feeding, mites know to find safe spots on the bee to attach, favoring locations on the abdomen or thorax that are both hairy and away from swinging legs and biting bee mandibles. How can one make them quit their bees given so many hiding places?

Caroline Vilarem and colleagues in France recently described an ambitious attempt to document the abilities of mites to hang onto surfaces when exposed to organic acids (Vilarem, C.; Piou, V.; Blanchard, S.; Vogelweith, F.; Vétillard, A. Lose Your Grip: Challenging Varroa destructor Host Attachment with Tartaric, Lactic, Formic, and Citric Acids, Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 9085. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13169085). These scientists deployed one of the coolest low-tech tools to measure how well mites grip onto a surface. While their ‘Rotavar’ sounds both complex and expensive, it is actually a ‘motor-driven rotating toothpick’. Yes, you can do this at home, with a slow (three or so revolutions per minute) motor and a supply of toothpicks. The authors add to that an extremely careful experimental design and complex statistics to show the different abilities of mites to hang onto sticks and bees coated with acetic, citric, lactic, formic and tartaric acids. The results hint at new modes and new candidates for mite control, with the usual caveat that converting a controlled lab assay to field colonies will be challenging.

Schematic diagram of the experimental design and measured parameters. Grip on wood (Rotavar): This method relies on direct contact between Varroa’s arolia and the organic acids. The Rotavar set-up is a motor-driven rotating toothpick used to assess V. destructor’s grip. Grip on bees: the host attachment experiment applies acids to the backs of honey bees to remove mites. T0 represents the administration time for treatments; T + 1 h 30, 24 h, 48 h, or 72 h stand for the time post administration used to make measurements. Figure from https://doi.org/10.3390/app13169085

Some highlights: First, acidity itself does not seem to be the solution. Most notably, even high doses of acetic acid had little impact on the abilities of mites to grab toothpicks and this candidate was quickly discarded. So, what can we glean from the differences between the tested acids? Tartaric acid worked great at dislodging mites from spinning toothpicks but was surprisingly poor at dislodging mites from bees. Prior work suggests that the mode of action for tartaric acid is, at least in part, toxicity towards mites. It is possible that the levels of tartaric acid needed to coat bees with a toxic dose are higher than they are on a relatively smooth and barren toothpick. Toothpicks also attract watery compounds (hydrophilic) while bees are coated with oils and are hence more water-repellent (hydrophobic). Maybe the availability of tartaric acid on toothpicks is higher than it would be on oilier bee bodies. Formic acid also worked much better on the wood surface than on bees, an intriguing insight for a well-used and effective mite control. Formic acid is also known to be directly toxic to mites and their cells, and the authors make clear that both direct toxicity and grippiness are clear and perhaps synergistic targets for mite control. The widely used miticide oxalic acid also wins by being directly toxic to mites at levels that are relatively safe for bees, demonstrating that there are many possible ways to turn organic acids into effective treatments.

Lactic acid came out as the best candidate in the study group for divorcing mites from their bees. This acid worked well at dislodging mites from both toothpicks and bees. Lactic acid does not appear to be highly toxic to mites and instead seems to act by changing the mechanics of hanging on. This is a nice lead for exploring acids with similar qualities for their abilities to both grease the ‘Rotavar’ and make bees a more slippery host. In another intriguing result from this nice study, mites that simply walked across paper holding lactic acid were then less good in future grip tests. What is it about lactic acid that burns, cleans or otherwise insults the complex and surprisingly ‘soft’ tarsi of mites?

If this topic has gripped you, consider reading up on the field thanks to a recent open-access paper on stickiness by graduate student Luc van den Boogaart and colleagues in the Netherlands (van den Boogaart, L.M.; Langowski, J.K.A.; Amador, G.J. Studying Stickiness: Methods, Trade-Offs, and Perspectives in Measuring Reversible Biological Adhesion and Friction. Biomimetics 2022, 7, 134; https://www.mdpi.com/2313-7673/7/3/134). For those of us who have stored ‘Freshman Physics’ in a remote hard drive, they give a clear review of how these forces work across organisms; in their words ‘from ticks to tree frogs’. Maybe their figures and insights will inspire a beekeeper or scientist to dream up a safe, effective route to dislodge mites from bees and prevent them from climbing back on. Pulling in people with a knowledge of physics, or just really good imaginations and the ability to build and deploy Rotavars (imagine how entertaining those can be, a la squirrel spinners… https://www.youtube.com/shorts/nBKb_z4_tGY), can only help in the hunt for new mite controls and healthier bees.